The Human Immunodeficiency Virus ( Aids ) Essay - 1235 Words

Introduction At the end of 2011, an estimated 1.2 million people aged 13 and older were living with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in the United States, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimated that approximately 50,000 people are newly infected with HIV each year (CDC, 2013). Fortunately, after more than 30 years of research on HIV, much progress has been made in fighting this disease. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) transformed what was once a death sentence into a manageable disease for individuals with drug-susceptible viral strains, who have access to antiretroviral drugs, and are compliant with their prescribed therapy. ART not only prolongs life, but also dramatically reduces the rate of HIV transmission (Deeks et al., 2012). Unfortunately, substantial challenges exist to maintain access to and funding for lifelong ART (Dolin et al., 2009; HRSA, 2012; Lewin, 2013), standard therapies do not fully restore health or a normal immune system in HIV-in fected individuals, and patients still experience comorbidities, such as increased cardiovascular diseases, bone disorders, and cognitive impairment (Deeks et al., 2012; Hsue et al., 2012; Phillips et al., 2008). It is possible that these HIV-associated complications are due to the toxic effects of treatment or the consequences of persistent inflammation and immune dysfunction (Katlama et al., 2013). Therefore, the International AIDS Society (IAS) convened a team of more than 40 scientistsShow MoreRelatedThe Human Immunodeficiency Virus ( Aids ) Essay2117 Words   |  9 PagesIntroduction The Human Immunodeficiency Virus is coming from a subgroup of retrovirus called Lentivirus which causes HIV infection leading to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) later on among humans. AIDS is a human condition which progresses to the failure of the immune system, causing life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive. Treatments can be given, but without those, survival time after infection with HIV is estimated to be 9 to 11 years, depending on the HIV subtypeRead MoreThe Human Immunodeficiency Virus ( Aids ) Essay2084 Words   |  9 PagesIntroduction The Human Immunodeficiency Virus is from a sub group from retrovirus called Lentivirus which causes HIV infection leading to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). AIDS is a human condition which progresses to the failure of the immune system causing life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive. Without treatment, survival time after infection with HIV is estimated to be 9 to 11 years, depending in the HIV subtype. Vital cells in the human immune system such asRead MoreHuman Immunodeficiency Virus ( Aids )1381 Words   |  6 Pagesdamaging diseases, and Ebola and HIV/Aids fall into the categories as one of the tougher diseases. Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the earlier stages of aids, it is a virus that either destroys or impairs the functions of the immune system cells. The last stage of HIV is the Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) which is when the immune system is defenseless to normal infections which now can be deadly. Ebola generally does the same thing as HIV/Aids, it attacks the immune system initiallyRead MoreThe Human Immunodeficiency Virus ( Aids )1765 Words   |  8 PagesThe Human Immunodeficiency Virus Degie Gelaw American Sentinel University The Human Immunodeficiency Virus Emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases are public health threats that require comprehensive, organized, and evidence-based control and prevention programs. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine formerly known as the Institute of Medicine (IOM) appointed a 19-member multidisciplinary expert council to study the emergence of microbial threats to health and publishedRead MoreHuman Immunodeficiency Virus ( Hiv ) / Aids1278 Words   |  6 PagesHuman immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/AIDS is a pandemic problem affecting global health. At the end of 2015, 36.7 million people were living with HIV/AIDS globally. The rate of incidence is more prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa with almost 1 in every 24 adults living with HIV/AIDS. In the united states, HIV/AIDS is a diversified health problem affecting all sexes, ages and races and involving the transmission of multiple risk behavior. However, with the introduction of various prevention programs andRead MoreHuman Immun odeficiency Virus : Hiv And Aids1935 Words   |  8 PagesHuman Immunodeficiency Virus, better known as the acronym HIV is a virus that destroys the immune system and can evolve into an infection. HIV is known a as pandemic because the immune system can fight off the infection but can never clear the HIV out of the body. â€Å"HIV is spread through contact with the blood, semen, pre-seminal fluid, rectal fluids, vaginal fluids, or breast milk of a person infected with HIV.† [AIDS] According to AIDS.info, in the United States, the virus is usually contractedRead MoreHiv / Aids : An Acronym For Human Immunodeficiency Virus971 Words   |  4 Pageswith no vaccine or cure. That disease is HIV/AIDS. A disease that is so powerful its position in our society has moved from epidemic to pandemic. In this paper we will explore HIV/AIDS and my one-day journey at one of Delaware County’s largest full service HIV/AIDS providers and how it changed my perspective on the disease a nd the people who carry it. What is HIV/AIDS? HIV is an acronym for Human Immunodeficiency Virus. This virus can only attack humans, hence the name, and reproduces by taking overRead MoreThe Human Immunodeficiency Virus ( Hiv ) And Acquired Immunodeficiency Disease ( Aids )1366 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction Over the last three decades, the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired Immunodeficiency Disease (AIDS) epidemic has been a public health concern in the United States (US) and globally. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], (2015d) estimates that in the US, over 1.2 million people are living with HIV, of which 12.8% are unaware of their diagnosis. Due to exceptional medical advances in treatment and prevention strategies, a healthier quality of life and longevityRead MoreHiv / Aids Paper : Human Immunodeficiency Virus Essay1835 Words   |  8 PagesJanuary 2016 HIV / AIDS Paper Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that attacks the human immune system, your body’s means of defense. The virus attacks specific viral defense cells, known as CD4+. As the disease spreads and attacks more CD4+ cells, your body no longer maintains its’ ability to fight of infections and diseases which leads to the death of the host. The final stage of HIV is known as AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome). During this stage of the virus, the host getsRead MoreHiv / Aids ( Human Immunodeficiency Virus / Acquired Human Immune Deficiency )1249 Words   |  5 Pagesintroduction to the topic of HIV/AIDS, (Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Human Immune Deficiency) from its early appearance as a deadly communicable disease that causes a viral infection in humans. During the 1960’s the infection was largely due to unprotected sex; the victims contracted the disease mostly due to unprotected sexual contacts from others who already had the virus. It became an epidemic and even pandemic. Those infected eventually died from HIV/AIDS as it came to be known, and there

The 4 Elements Of The Movement Of Hip Hop - 1654 Words

The 4 Elements of the Movement of Hip Hop The Urban Dictionary’s definition of Hip Hop is: A name for the 4 elements of the late 70 s New York City renaissance which includes break dancing, emceeing, (rapping) graffiti, and turntablism. Wikipedia’s definition is: Hip hop or hip-hop is a subcultural movement that formed during the early 1970s by African-American and Puerto Rican youths residing in the South Bronx in New York City. Hip hop is truly several forms of art used to express emotions visually, aurally, orally, physically. It is then categorized into 4 separate parts: mceeing, Djing, breakdancing and graffiti. All have evolved from when they were first created, shifted over the years and now apply to modern times. Many people have different versions to how Hip Hop was created. The one most often believed is how Dj Kool Herc came across 3 of the components that make up hip hop. When trying to entertain at a birthday party using a turntable, he accidentally expanded a break in the beat. A technique now known as scratching was invented and people began to rhyme, and breakdance during this break. Mceeing or rapping to the beats made by a dj and his turntable, the most popular of the foundations of hip hop, took the Black and Puerto Rican communities by storm. Eventually spreading out from the select neighborhoods, making its way to the rest of the world. Though people were dubious about this style of music becoming popular, now rap music is one of the most listenedShow MoreRelatedRap Or Hip Hop Is More Than Just Another Music Genre940 Words   |  4 PagesRap or Hip Hop is more than just another music genre, it is a movement full of more aspects than one could imagine. The film â€Å"The Art of Rap† directed, produced, and hosted by Ice-T, exemplifies the different aspects and explains the importance of Hip Hop while taking a journey interviewing many legendary MC’s, giving the viewer an inside perspective of this music and the art of MC’ing. This film also heavily resonates with the book Rap Music and Street Consciousness. Ice-T interviews many influentialRead MoreYouth And The Hip Hop Youth Culture1695 Words   |  7 Pagesappearance. In this essay, I will analyse how globalisation, popular culture, and consumerism emerge as factors that influence the participation of young people in the hip-hop youth culture in Australia. I will also apply the human ecological theory in order to facilitate the understanding of factors that affect youth participation in the hip-hop culture. Culture is generally described as a way of life. It entails the meanings, values, practices, and beliefs that are usually contrasted with structure, natureRead MoreBreak Dancing Essay1418 Words   |  6 PagesBreak Dancing Most people have heard of break dancing and have been amazed and mystified by the extraordinary movement, but what is it really and where did originate from? Many people have influenced the history of break dancing and will continue to. From being a recreational sport it has become competitive and addictive to hundreds of people all around the world as some of the greats of the business like Kujo to the new learners experiment and progress further the sportRead MoreHarlem Renaissance the Hip Hop Movement2779 Words   |  12 Pagesthe Hip-hop Movement AN OVERVIEW The Harlem Renaissance and the Hip-Hop Movement are a culmination of co-related cultural art forms that have emerged out of the black experience. White people understood black people more through their expression of art during both movements. Both movements brought about a broad cross-racial following and, ironically, in both instances brought about a better understanding of the black experience for white America. The bridge between Be-Bop and Hip-Hop wasRead MoreWomen Of Hip Hop Culture Essay1723 Words   |  7 PagesWomen have decided to consume hip hop regardless of the sexism and machismo of their rap artist spouses. Historically, black women who have sex with other women haven’t been recognized in the Black community. Also, the expectations are the same in hip hop culture because men reject lesbians. An example is the murder in 2003 of Sakia Gunn after she declared her lesbian identity to a group of males. We all know that in hip hop culture men predominate and p recisely masculine. Women can achieve a higherRead MoreThe Golden Era of East Coast Hip-Hop2032 Words   |  9 PagesThe Golden era of east coast hip-hop This piece will demonstrate an understanding of the golden era of East coast hip-hop, from 1986 to 1993, focusing and analysing the historical roots, influences and inspirational individuals, giving reference to musical examples that shaped East coast hip-hop. Attention will also be centred on the legacy left, concentrating on the music that was influenced as well as the resulting change in fashion and political views. Historical roots influence TheRead MoreThe Bad Touch Essay1398 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"alternative rock†, while 107.9 The End believes that their music genre is hip hop, and pop. These two radio station would be considered to be very different by most people, this is why it seemed so peculiar that they would be playing the same song. In order to understand the difference between the two different genres that the radio stations play we will first have to identify the differences between the alternative rock, and hip hop pop. The roots of rock and roll started in the South with rhythm andRead MoreHip Hop And Its Influence On The Culture Essay2067 Words   |  9 PagesHip hop is one of the most prominent component in life and culture today. Today, it is often affiliated as being a musical genre and style that is debatably the leading factor in music today. But hip hop is far more than that. It is a culture and a way life. It has helped form most what we know today. It has greatly influenced many ways that we choose to define ourselves. Clothing styles, all forms of art media, storytelling, and many other canvases that we typically use in our everyday life hasRead MoreHip Hop Wars By Tricia Rose3817 Words   |  16 PagesWhen Tricia Rose speaks to the concept of â€Å"hip hop wars† in her writing, she is referring to a broad range of different conflicts that are taking place in all areas of hip hop. In the introduction to her book, she begins to explain her multitude of concerns surrounding certa in topics in hip hop. She begins by saying that the most financially successful hip hop has become a way of caricaturing â€Å"black gangstas, pimps and hoes† (p. 1). She goes on to explain that homophobia, hypersexism, antisocialRead MoreHip Hop And Rap Music Essay1941 Words   |  8 Pageswith the increased presence of hip-hop culture within American culture, many educators no longer view hip-hop culture with the same air of skepticism common in the early stages of HHBE.† Hip Hop Based Education also referred to as HHBE is movement that helps bring hip hop into the classroom.(USE THAT SOURCE HERE) HHBE has many positive and influential outcomes for children living in inner cities. Hip hop music has categories and one of them is rap. By bringing hip hop and rap music into schools it

World Religions Report In APA Style Free Essays

string(80) " blessings and readings from the Torah and is led by a teacher, called a rabbi\." Judaism is the Jewish religion. It is one of the oldest of the great world religions, and is the mother religion of both Christianity and Islam. Judaism was not founded by one towering personality, as were most other religions. We will write a custom essay sample on World Religions Report In APA Style or any similar topic only for you Order Now Abraham and Moses are not regarded as founders. Abraham was the â€Å"father of the Hebrew people† and Moses was the â€Å"law-giver†. With the destruction of Solomon’s temple at Jerusalem in 586 B. C. began the scattering of the Hebrews over many lands. From then on Judaism developed as a religion without the priestly class of the ancient temple. Moreover, Judaism is one of the oldest beliefs that are still observed and practiced up to the present and considered as one of the first recorded â€Å"monotheistic† faiths. The Jewish’s values and history are the main part of the foundation of different Abrahamic religions like Christianity, Islam, Samaritanism and the Baha’i Faith. In 2006, Judaism’s devotees are approximately 14 million that makes Judaism faith as the eleventh-biggest organized religion globally. Unlike with other religions, Judaism is totally distinct in such a way that its â€Å"central authority is not vested in any person or group† but it abides in its writings and traditions. This would mean that Judaism religion does not have a head or a leader that oversees them but they rather obey what is written in its writings and traditions. Moreover, the Judaism church is continually bound to a number of religious practices and beliefs, specifically its belief that there is one, omnipotent, omni benevolent, transcended omniscient God who made the heavens and the earth and continually have its control over mankind. The conventional Jewish belief stated that the God who made the universe had made a covenant with the Jewish people only and gave his laws and commandments through Torah. Judaism‘s belief and practices are focused on these laws and commandments (see Asheri, Michael. Living Jewish: the Lore and law of the Practicing Jew, 1999). According to Jewish law, anyone who has a Jewish mother counts as a Jew, even if he or she is not religious. Many Jews do, however, actively follow the religious practices of Judaism. Judaism is one of the world’s oldest religions, beginning some 3,500 years ago in the Middle East. Today, there are about 18 million Jews. They live all over the world, but mostly in the United States, Europe and Israel. There are many different groups of Jews with different ways of practicing their faith. The main groups are Orthodox, Reform and Conservative Jews (see Jacobs, Louis. The Book of Jewish Belief (Behrman House, 2000). II. Background According to the Jewish holy books, the first Jew was a man called Abraham, who is known as the father of the Jewish people. He was the leader of a group of nomadic people, called the Hebrews. At that time, the Hebrews worshipped many different gods. Abraham taught his people that there is only one God and that they should worship only him. Jews believe that God made a covenant, or agreement, with Abraham. If Abraham and his people worshipped God and lived good and just lives, God would look after them and give them a land of their own to live in. This was the Promised Land of Canaan (see Shenker, Israel. Coat of many Colors: Pages from Jewish Life (Doubleday, 2001). The Jews settled in Canaan but centuries later, famine forced their descendants to move to Egypt in search of food. They worked for the Egyptians but were treated like slaves and their lives were extremely miserable. God remembered his promise to Abraham and sent a man called Moses to lead the Jews to freedom. Several times, Moses asked the Pharaoh to let the Jews go, but each time he refused. Only after God sent ten terrible plagues to Egypt did the Pharaoh change his mind. Moses led the Jews out of Egypt and into the desert. After 40 years of wandering, God guided the Jews back to the Promised Land (see Prager, Dennis, and Joseph Telushkin. Nine Questions People Ask About Judaism (Simon Schuster, 1999). The Jewish scriptures are called the Tenakh. They are divided into three parts—the Torah (5 Books of Teaching), the Nevi’im (21 Books of the Prophets) and the Ketuvim (13 Books of Writings). The initials of the three parts—T, N and K—give the word Tenakh. For Jews, the Torah is the most important part of their scriptures because it contains the rules that teach Jews how to live their lives. These are the teachings that God gave to Moses on Mount Sinai during the Jews’ journey through the desert. They are summed up by ten rules, or commandments (see Musaph-Andriesse, R. G. From Torah to Kabbalah: a Basic Introduction to the Writings of Judaism (Oxford University, 1998). 1. I am the Lord your God. 2. Worship no other gods but me. 3. Do not use God’s name falsely. 4. Keep the Sabbath day holy. . Respect your father and mother. 6. Do not kill. 7. Do not commit adultery. 8. Do not steal. 9. Do not tell lies about other people. 10. Do not be jealous of other people’s possessions. Copies of the Torah are handwritten on scrolls and kept in the synagogue, the Jewish place of worship. Traditional Jews follow the Torah exactly and believe that its teachings should not be changed. Less traditional Jews believe that the teaching of the Torah can be adapted to make them more suitable for modern life. Jews can worship anywhere but many choose to pray with other Jews at the synagogue. The word synagogue means â€Å"meeting place†. Synagogues are not only places of worship but also centers for study, celebration and for the community to meet. Large synagogues have services every day but many Jews go to the synagogue only on the Sabbath (called Shabbat in Hebrew) (see below) and special holy days. The service on the morning of the Sabbath lasts for about two hours. A service includes prayers, blessings and readings from the Torah and is led by a teacher, called a rabbi. You read "World Religions Report In APA Style" in category "Papers" Readings from the Torah are given from a raised platform, called a bimah, in the centre of the synagogue. When they are not in use, the scrolls of the Torah are kept in a special alcove, called the Holy Ark. This is the holiest part of the synagogue. Everyone faces the Ark as they pray (see Musaph-Andriesse, R. G. From Torah to Kabbalah: a Basic Introduction to the Writings of Judaism (Oxford University, 1998). At services in the synagogue, Jewish men wear a small cap, called a kippah, to show respect for God. At some services, men also wear a prayer shawl that reminds the person wearing it of God. Traditional Jews may also wear two small leather boxes, called tefillin. One is worn on the middle of the forehead; the other is tied to the arm, facing the heart. Inside the boxes are tiny scrolls on which passages from the Torah are written. The tefillin remind Jews that they should love God with their whole hearts and minds (see Musaph-Andriesse, R. G. From Torah to Kabbalah: a Basic Introduction to the Writings of Judaism (Oxford University, 1998). III. Discussion A. Name and Location of the Site The interview was conducted at Mikvah Chabad House at New Brunswick, New Jersey this is where I had the chance to conversed and interview Gary Austein. It is the place where Jewish people go for spiritual purification. Going in these place help Jewish women come together with their husband and together with their love for each other where in they also follow the commandments that God has established for His people. Mitzvah of Mikvah is one of their tradition in which helps them get more connected with their God. B. Interview Summary During the interview I asked Gary Austein the important holidays and traditions of this religion. He answered â€Å"The important holidays and tradition of Judaism are Yom Kippur. Rosh Hashana and the Passover. The holiest day in the Jewish calendar is Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement. This day is set aside to repent for the sins of the previous year. It is a day when any adult who has been Bar/Bat Mitzvah’d (age 12-13) fasts and reflects on the past year and asks God for forgiveness. Rosh Hashana is the previous weeks and is the Jewish New Year. Passover is in the spring and it is a time when Jews cannot eat unleavened bread reflecting on the Israelites exodus from Egypt. † When I asked him on how Judaism has shaped his life. And I quote â€Å"Religion defines who I am as a person. I would say I am a Jew first and an American second, that is how important it is to me. My value and belief system is a product of my Jewish identity and upbringing. My adult life has brought my Judaism more into my life than ever as I now have a Jewish home, Jewish wife and child on the way. I also work at a Jewish Day School so I am always reminded of my Jewish identity as both my professional and personal life revolves around my religion. † Jews throughout the world are always a target of anti-Semitism. This is a fact that they accepted and so with other families. It is scary that millions upon millions of people have been murdered because of their belief in Judaism. Between the Holocausts, pogroms in Russia, and terrorist’s attacks, an astounding amount of Jews have died because of their belief. Society is not very conducive for an observant Jewish lifestyle; Jews are supposed to observe the Sabbath (Friday night to Saturday night) and are not supposed to drive, work, spend money, etc. A lot happens on the weekends so this is difficult. Also if you keep Kosher (Jewish dietary restrictions) it is difficult to eat out as the vast majority of food and restaurants are not kosher. People have much false impression about Judaism. A lack of understanding and acceptance has led to misconceptions, not only of Judaism, but throughout the world. People need to always remind themselves that both Christianity and Islam were born from Judaism. Both religions accept the Torah (the Jewish Bible, also referred to at the Old Testament) as the word of God and credit Judaism for the birth of their respective religions. If people are more aware of this people then maybe open to differences of people. Judaism defines who a Jew is, they wear it as a badge of honor. For them it is amazing that time still honors traditions that are still practiced at present. Something like male circumcision is the oldest religious tradition in the world today. It is amazing that it has lasted for thousands of years. It shows the resiliency and the testament of the Jewish faith that they are able to continue throughout the generations. Judaism has greatly shaped his life as a Jew. And it is through the people around that have helped him a lot in his Religious belief. His parents gave him his Jewish identity and the friends of his family have nurtured it. His best friend who is a rabbinical student has been very influential in shaping his Jewish identity. His marriage also shaped his Jewish identity as his wife converted to Judaism which has given him a newfound zeal and love for his religion. His study of Holocaust has been a dramatic part of his Jewish identity. Finally his visits to Israel, the Jewish state has given him a unique pride in his homeland. He considers himself a Conservative Jew which is best classified as the middle of the road. For the most part, Jews of different backgrounds are fairly understanding and respectful of the traditions and practices of other sects of Judaism, with the exception of the ultra-Orthodox movement. He believes that if you are a Jewish according to the laws and traditions of Moses then it does not matter how you practice as long as you believe it in your heart. However, he believes that there are certain misinterpretations some of the other sects have undertaken, but that is not something that he could be worried or be burden about. Judaism has been the common bond of the Jewish people. It is the foundation of their culture and the reason for the creation of Israel, the Jewish State. Israel is the most important tangible asset they have and something that must be protected at all costs. Judaism is the reason the Jewish people have and are persecuted, yet is the belief and intangible asset that keeps them together as a people. The Covenant is the â€Å"agreement† between God and Abraham, the patriarch of the Jewish people, that the Jews will be â€Å"the chosen people. This is a fact that is accepted by both Christians and Muslims alike. This covenant was symbolized by Abraham being circumcised and is something that is required for all Jewish males a week after they are born. This is a common misconception. All three of the major monotheistic religions, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam have more similarities than differences. Their major prophets are the same; their historical texts are born out of the Je wish Bible, and their belief in one all powerful, all knowing, and benevolent God are distinct commonalities. They all practice and worship God in different ways, but when it comes down to it, they were all born from Abraham and Sarah, meaning they are all brothers and sisters. IV. Comparing Judaism to Christianity A. Christianity Christianity is the religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. It began in Palestine and was proclaimed the fulfillment of Jewish teaching regarding the coming of the messiah, promised by God to redeem man from sin. Jesus taught the doctrine of the Hebrew prophets that the Jews were God’s chosen people and therefore had the right to hear the message of the Gospel before all others. However, his teachings had a universal objective and were destined to reach every man and nation (see McCollister, J. C. The Christian Book of Why (Jonathan David, 2000). Christianity is a missionary religion, holding that Christ’s message was intended for the whole world, not just for a particular area of people. In Mark 16:15-16, Jesus is quoted as saying: â€Å"Go ye into the entire world, and preach the gospel to the whole creation. He that believeth and is baptized shall be saved†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Christianity has been not only a religious force, but also a social and political one. Often it has been imposed by military power that hardly seems in keeping with the precepts of the gentle Jesus. Nevertheless, the moral lessons taught by Christianity have had a profound effect in teaching man to deal justly with his fellows and to observe the pleas of Jesus to â€Å"love thy neighbor as thyself† (Matthew 19:19). About one-fourth of the world’s people are Christians. Christian churches have an estimated world membership of more than 1. 6 billion—more than twice the membership of any other religion. The original basic beliefs of Christianity are stated in the Apostles’ Creed. It affirms that Jesus Christ is the son of God and that God sent him to earth to live as a man and to suffer and die for the redemption of mankind. It also states the belief that Jesus, after being crucified, arose from the dead and ascended to heaven, from which he will return to earth to judge the living and the dead. Belief that Jesus was born of a virgin mother and that there is a life for man after death are essential parts of the creed (see McCollister, J. C. The Christian Book of Why (Jonathan David, 2000). Man’s need for help from a higher power was stressed in religions earlier than Christianity. The concept of God as benevolent and forgiving—rather than as vengeful— is a main tenet of the Christina’s faith. Another Christian belief is that even though man has sinned seriously and separated himself from the love of God, he can be saved by repentance. The necessity, and therefore the possibility, of communion between God and man are accepted by all Christians (see Wiggins, James, and R. S. Ellwood. Christianity: a Cultural Perspective (Prentice-Hall, 2002). B. Doctrinal Differences At first, the gospel of Jesus was spread by his disciples, followers who remembered his sayings. As gentiles (non-Jews) as well as Jews entered the church, the influence of other minds began to be seen in the interpretation of doctrines. In this work, early Christian theologians borrowed ideas from the teachings of the Greek philosophers. At the same time, national traits and customs began to affect rituals and observances. Even within each of the three great divisions of the Christian church—Roman Catholic, Protestant, and eastern Orthodox—there are variations of practice. This is particularly true of the Protestants. The sacrament of baptism provides an example. Baptists hold that the convert must be completely immersed in water; Methodists believe that sprinkling water on the head is sufficient. Most denominations baptize infants, but some insist that the individual be old enough to understand the meaning of the sacrament (see Walker, Williston. A History of the Christian Church, 4th edition (Sribner’s, 1998). There are other differences. The Disciples of Christ and certain other Protestant groups insist upon using the Bible alone as a source of guidance. The doctrine of the Trinity—the belief that God is three beings (the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) in one divine nature—is accepted as basic by most Christians, but is rejected by Unitarians and Universalists (see Wiggins, James, and R. S. Ellwood. Christianity: a Cultural Perspective (Prentice-Hall, 2002). Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox and Anglicans recognize seven sacraments, while most Protestants recognize only those of Holy Communion (also called the Eucharist or Lord’s Supper) and baptism. Catholics believe that the priest by the sacrament of the Eucharist changes bread and wine into the body and blood of Jesus. Most Protestants see in the ritual only a spiritual representation of the presence of Jesus (see Wiggins, James, and R. S. Ellwood. Christianity: a Cultural Perspective (Prentice-Hall, 2002). The method of church government us a common cause of differences between denominations. The Roman Catholic Church places final authority in the pope, whom it calls the Vicar of Christ. The Episcopal form of church government is headed by bishops of equal authority. Authority over the churches in the Presbyterian form of government is exercised by boards, called presbyteries, ministers and elected laymen. In churches with the congregational type of government, each congregation has complete local rule (see Walker, Williston. A History of the Christian Church, 4th edition (Sribner’s, 1998). IV. Conclusion Judaism is the United States has four branches: Orthodox, Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist. The total membership of the four branches is lower than the estimated total number of Jews in the United States, because many Jews are not outside the United States and Canada are Orthodox. Orthodox Jews advocate strict observance of traditional rituals and customs. Hasidic Jews form a small, extremely orthodox, mystical group. Many orthodox synagogues are members of the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America. Reform Jews have abandoned many rituals and customs that they consider unsuited to modern life. They stress the prophetic ideas of the Bible rather than the Law, and emphasize the mission of the Jews to spread godliness throughout the world. The reform movement began early in the 19th century in Germany and is now centered mainly in the United States. The Union of American Hebrew Congregations is an association of reform congregations. Conservative Jews hold a middle ground between the orthodox and the reform. In the United States, this movement began during the 1890’s. The United Synagogue of America is the national organization of Conservative congregations. Reconstructionist Jews observe many of the traditional rituals and customs, but reject supernaturalism and divine revelation. Reconstructionist Judaism was founded by Mordecai Kaplan in the 1920’s as a movement within the Conservative branch. With the establishment of Reconstructionist Rabbinical College in 1968, it emerged as a separate branch of Judaism. How to cite World Religions Report In APA Style, Papers

Indigenous Education and Perspectives

Question: Discuss about the Indigenous Education and Perspectives. Answer: Introduction: The essay presents a detailed description of the Stolen Generations in the context of Indigenous Australians. It analyses the effect, impact and their nature on the Indigenous population. Further, the essay focuses on the significance of understanding the historical event by the educators and reflects on its relevance. Lastly, the essay discusses the undermining effect of the event and strongly supports the use of Indigenous language. The term "Stolen Generations" refers to the event and the actions between 1890-1970, including separation of families and children of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander (Korff, 2014). These children never met their families again and were admitted in government institutions. The non-Indigenous families adopted some of these children. In 1900s this event persuaded the Australian public to believe that the Indigenous children were poorly treated, deprived, and were at risk. They believed that the life of the children would improve if adopted by the non-Indigenous Australians or institutions that can provide them more love, care, better education and more civilized upbringing. However, the reality behind this event was different. The objective of removing these children was to introduce them to Anglo values and work habits." The rationale was to stop the passing of language, identity, cultural values to the children by their biological parents and communities such that they could be employed by the colonial settlers (Nsdc.org.au, n.d.). Children with one of the parents being white and other Indigenous were mainly targeted for this purpose. It was also believed by the Aboriginal protection boards that the outcome of this separation would be a successful assimilation of these isolated children into white society. It gave them great hopes that it would easily help in merging the mixed indigenous people with the white population (Nsdc.org.au, n.d.). However, this attempt was mainly to wipe out the Aboriginal race completely leaving only the whites. A stated by McKeich, (2006), in 1915, the Aborigines Protection Amending Act enabled taking Indigenous children away from their families neglecting the same maltreatment and negligence that they would experience any way. The act managed to remove children without the court order and parental consent. The member of the parliament of New South Wales Mr. McGarry objected this act in 1915 and described the policy as stealing the child away from its parents." It was later in 1997 that the Human Rights and Equal Opportunities Commission initiated a national inquiry into this separation. In 1997, the findings of this inquiry were released as Bringing Them Home (McKeich, 2006). The findings revealed many cases of forceful removal of Indigenous children from their families and communities. These findings thus led to the emergence of the term The Stolen Generations that describes the stories shared by the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. The Indigenous children (half-caste) who were removed were known as the "stolen generations." Throughout this period of stolen generations, every night the children were removed from their family leaving their families horified. Later the report referred to the term as forcible removal policies (McKeich, 2006). It was estimated that between 1883-1969, in NSW alone more than 60,000 children were stolen, however, there were hardly any records found of them according to Korff, (2014). The past child removal policy has s till had its effect on the Indigenous communities. They are present as either first, second or third generation member of the Stolen Generations. In 2008, Mr. Kevin Rudd the Prime Minister of Australia had apologized for stolen generation in front of the nation. Although the Indigenous Australians of the Stolen Generations accepted the apology, it neither repaired their broken hearts nor their issues. This affected population needs more support and initiatives from the nation (Davenport-West, 2009). There is wide range of challenges faced by the members of the Stolen Generations which greatly impacts their life. Children who are taken away from their family experiences trauma. These people do not come forward due to confusion, shame, and sense of not being cared. The other reason includes family and friends who lack awareness and find difficult to be open about their grief and do not prefer to dig into the past (Davenport-West, 2009). There are reports of many children experiencing psychological issues after being the victim of physical and sexual abuse by the caregivers. These greatly affect the mental health of the children thus, preventing them from coming forward (Davenport-West, 2009). There are range of factors that determines the impact of the child abuse including the existing relationship between the abuser/s and the child, type and severity of abuse, family environment of the child, the relationship between the child and the parents or other caregivers, and if any hist ory of child abuse or care, support and love (Asca.org.au, n.d). Children with experiences of abuse are found to have common psychological effects in adulthood, which are anxiety, depression, aggression and violence. According to Asca.org.au, (n.d) members of the stolen generations are highly vulnerable to these effects. As per Davenport-West, (2009) the Indigenous children and families of the stolen generations are deprived of accurate records about their marriage, birth, adoption, and other government records. Without the birth certificate, it is difficult for an individual to prove own identity. This prevents them from accessing certain services and support existing in their favor. Also, the incomplete and missing records make it difficult for the parents and children of the stolen generations to search for their lost heritage, community and family members. Even if some members return, they are highly likely to be rejected because of their poor knowledge related to Aboriginal language, community, and cultural values. Therefore, it becomes difficult for them to fit in their culture like any other stranger and are unaccepted (Davenport-West, 2009). The impact of child removal is not only limited to the first-degree relatives rather several generations. Many generations feel the pain and trauma such as families, children, grandchildren and communities. Children raised in foster homes and those who were institutionalized were found to unable to raise their children with affection and love. Since they were always devoid of compassion and warmth, they failed to bring their children appropriately (Davenport-West, 2009). The Indigenous Australians are more likely to ha ve poor physical and mental health when compared to the non-Indigenous Australians. The chronic illnesses that are highly prevalent among the Aboriginals are heart disease, diabetes, kidney disease, drug and alcohol abuse, higher rates of smoking and premature birth. They experience a variety of emotional and mental health concerns and are highly represented in death and disability index. Diabetes and heart diseases are inherited conditions. Therefore, inability to track back the lost family members also poses a health risk (Davenport-West, 2009). Members of stolen generations have poor contact with the criminal justice system being in the foster care system and institutionalization. However, the police system pays greater attention to the Indigenous children as they grow into adolescence which is the outcome of the Bringing them homeReport according to McKeich, (2006). The Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islander communities have a rich history with their cultural values, customs, be liefs, and language. Children adopted by the white Australians are devoid of their rich history and cultural knowledge and never felt themselves to be the part of the Indigenous population. Hence, they were discriminated and not treated as a part of the non-Indigenous society. Therefore, the knowledge of this history should also be present among the educators to teach, support and encourage the children to accept the Indigenous culture (Supporting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in kindergarten, 2005). The children removed from their families face a range of difficulties in schools. In Australia, the mainstream schools fail to meet the needs of the culturally and linguistically diverse group of students. They experience, difficult learning situation as they are expected to conform or assimilate like other white Australian children in the schools. Consequently, these children show the high rate of absenteeism and eventually leave school permanently. Due to child removal, the Indigenous people have lost their culture, language, and family. As a result, the Aboriginal people fail to pass on their language, cultures and traditions to their next generation. This is leading to dying of their culture and language. The learning style of Indigenous children differs from the non-Indigenous children. The Indigenous children also have legit, strong culture and pedagogies (Nichol, 2011). According to the theory of Universal Grammar put forward by Noam Chomsky, children are born with instinctive grammar capabilities. In the brain, these children are found to use the mechanism of "Language Acquisition Device'." It facilitates the learning of any language. For every child, the first three years of life are the critical period of learning. It becomes difficult to learn a new language after this age (Lemetyinen, 2012). Thus, critical learning period may also be the reason creating difficulty in learning an Indigenous language after the initial three years in children. This is the hurdle for the members of stolen generations when learning an Indigenous language. The only way to keep children engaged in learning an Indigenous culture, history and languages are to teach them through the medium of stories, art and music (Supporting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in kindergarten, 2005). The stolen generation have the long-term effect on the Indigenous children. However, multicultural ways of teaching can be adopted by the schools and educators to have a positive imp act on the children learning the Indigenous culture. This also assists in greater acceptance and inclusion of Indigenous culture among these children (McKeich, 2006). The essay has exhaustively discussed the impact of stolen generation on the Indigenous Australians. The essay has focused on the significance of understanding the historical event by the educators. The essay has discussed the undermining effect of stolen generations, and it strongly supports the use of Indigenous language. It made me cringe studying the way Aboriginals were treated for several years. Studying about their trauma and the painful past of Australia made my heart drop. Throughout the past decades, these populations have faced hard times. Research on this topic has helped me in gaining in-depth knowledge about the history of Indigenous Australians. The government can never rewind what has been taken away from the Indigenous people, and I feel that the apology was not enough. However, the apology and confession of wrongdoing indicate steps being taken in the right direction. References Asca.org.au,Childhood trauma and abuse can have many effects on adult health. Retrieved 10 January 2015, from https://www.asca.org.au/About/Resources/Abuse-related-conditions.aspx Davenport-West, R. (2009).Between Two Worlds Understanding the Stolen Generations.https://www.stolengenerationsvictoria.org.au/. Retrieved 8 January 2015, from https://www.stolengenerationsvictoria.org.au/sitebuilder/careers/knowledge/asset/files/54/stolengen_btwa5%283%29.pdf Korff, J. (2014).A guide to Australias Stolen Generations.Creative Spirits. Retrieved 20. December 2016, from https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/politics/a-guide-to-australias-stolen-generations Lemetyinen, H. (2012).Language Acquisition Theory | Simply Psychology.Simplypsychology.org. Retrieved 11 January 2015, from https://www.simplypsychology.org/language.html McKeich, A. (2006).Stolen Generation's Victoria- Second Step(1st ed., pp. 1-78). Retrieved from https://www.stolengenerationsvictoria.org.au/sitebuilder/careers/knowledge/asset/files/42/secondsteppdf.pdf Nichol,. (2011).INDIGENOUS PEDAGOGY AND DEVELOPMENT(1st ed., pp. 103-125). Retrieved from https://download.springer.com.ezproxy.lib.swin.edu.au/static/pdf/248/chp%253A10.1007%252F978-94-6091-373-0_7.pdf?auth66=1421260076_a59bca1529e05345a224769fa4a52033ext=.pdf Nsdc.org.au,.The History of the Stolen Generations - National Sorry Day Committee. Retrieved 7 January 2015, from https://www.nsdc.org.au/stolen-generations/history-of-the-stolen-generations/the-history-of-the-stolen-generations Supporting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in kindergarten. (2005) (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://www.education.vic.gov.au/Documents/childhood/parents/support/supportingatsikinder.pdf Yunkaporta, T. (2009).8ways - Aboriginal pedagogy research review.8ways.wikispaces.com. Retrieved 11 January 2015, from https://8ways.wikispaces.com/Aboriginal+pedagogy+research+review

School Leadership

Introduction In today’s era of heightened expectations, school leaders are in the hot seat to ensure effective and excellent educational outcomes. The multi-levelled pedagogic school leaders highly determine the mode of teaching students in schools and the effective application of the learning process.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on School Leadership specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Not only are they curriculum leaders but they are also educational futurists, disciplinarians, instructors, assessors, analysts, field experts and society builders (Davies 2005). They are involved in the core running of the school and act as a go-between in case of any arising conflicts between the parents, students, teachers, education participants such as unions and the society itself. This requires them to not only be sensitive when meeting student’s demands and needs but to also be critical thinkers so as to deliver valid judgments based on logic. School leadership is currently a complex concept with most leaders failing to balance their roles. It is evident that they are heavily inclined towards school management and accountability hence disregarding the effective mode of impacting knowledge to students to ensure quality teaching and learning. The outcome greatly reflects the quality of the school leaders’ pedagogy and their ability to give credible teaching instructions to improve learning in schools. Teachers need to have adequate knowledge of how to teach students and be able to implement and design the school curriculum. The following paper will therefore discuss the current change in pedagogical and instructional roles that seem to create imbalance in their competing roles and how the same can be reclaimed. School Leadership Previous studies have attempted to define the concepts, models and practises that characterise the effect of leadership in educational outcomes. Several conte mporary leadership theories have come up as a result. According to Davies and Ellison (2001), the distributional and transformational leadership theories are examples of such theories.Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More These two theories have been discussed by many scholars in an attempt to draw an understanding on the nature of school leadership and how it affects learning and teaching in schools. They also create a link between the leaders and the teachers themselves with an attempt of establishing the student outcomes that is derived from this relationship. Though the study on effective leadership based on this theories have not been concluded, it is evident that school leaders have a big role to play. Student performance is therefore attributed to the influence impacted through effective leadership. Successful school leaders give support and knowledgeable instructions to the teacher s, a practise that develops their inner intellectual powers. In addition, they also implement an effective organisation model that helps them strike a balance in their competitive roles. The studies on educational leadership draws a clear conclusion that school leaders requires to be actively involved in the institution’s learning and instructional programs. Principals need to balance the instructional and pedagogical roles together with their managerial roles to ensure exemplary student performance. The main goal in any learning institution is assuring parents and the society in general that their children are receiving quality education. Though managerial and compliance accountability roles play a big role in running a school, student performance should be made the core business, a concept that is ignored by many school leaders. Leadership Crisis In order to discuss how school leaders can become instructional and pedagogical leaders rather than just mere managers, it is imp ortant to look at the challenges facing school leadership. There has been increasing demands for effective schools and the achievement by students is entirely based on the key roles played by school leaders. Leadership challenges have played a big role in the transformation of quality teaching and learning (Duke 2010). The school leaders need to address these challenges as a step of regaining the lost glory. One of the main challenge relate to the leadership styles adopted by the leaders.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on School Leadership specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Most school leaders lead through manipulation that tends to intimidate teachers. A research conducted indicates that 80% of school management is characterised by dictatorial leadership (Duke 2010). This can be due to various reasons such as nepotism or favouritism by the leader. Dictatorial leadership can also be applied in instances where the le ader is involved in unscrupulous dealings and is afraid of being exposed by a certain teacher. In such cases, the dictatorial management style instils fear in such teachers who steer away from the leader’s affairs. This challenge begets teachers who in turn fail to perform in their role of impacting knowledge to students. The other challenge is the limited capacity by school leaders to qualify as effective leaders. There has been an increase in unqualified selection of leaders due to the lenient selection process. The mode of screening, selection and admitting the leaders have been ill-defined and lacking in its application. As a result, most school leaders are easily admitted based on their academic background only and not their knowledge experiences or skill disposition required to making an effective leader. In addition, there are inadequate training programs for principals. The training is important to upgrade their competence and qualification to effectively run a school . Lack of dialogue between leaders and other participants in decision making is also a leadership crisis that has led to a decline in students’ performances. Such leaders fail to take criticism from teachers, students or even the society itself positively. This leads to such leaders applying the direct approach instead of a facilitative approach while making their decisions. This approach is bureaucratic in nature and tends to leave out important factors that can result to a disastrous decision. The other challenge worth noting is the lack of ownership in the mission and vision statements of the school. These statements play a big role in achieving the goals set by the school’s administration. In most schools, leaders have failed to expose the vision and mission to both teachers and students as an inspiration for them to work towards achieving the set goals and objectives. Most school teachers are up in hands to retain their position thus compromising the performance o f students.Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Instead of engaging both students and the teachers, they are busy pleasing the school board in a bid to secure their managerial positions and disregarding problems faced by teachers to facilitate effective learning (Grace 1995). The quality of education has declined over the past few years. It is important to note that most of these challenges were not faced twenty ago hence they can be resolved. The challenges not only lead to the leader’s disorientation but also affect the teachers and the students as well. Instructional And Pedagogical Leadership Versus Administrative Leadership An oration by William Walker during a conference held by educational leaders in Australia gives a clear analysis of who qualifies as a pedagogical leader. Delivered by Viviane Robinson, the article seems to focus on educational leadership and their ability to give instructions rather than just being mere managers (Robinson 2007). The roles in this kind of leadership are differentiated from that of a school administrator in various ways. One distinctive role is the mode of discharging their administrative duties. While the administrators apply a rather strict approach, a pedagogical leader has clear set goals that involve all the participants. The latter is more involved in the implementation of the curriculum, monitoring process and evaluation of teachers and allocation of resources to make the program successful. They also encourage team work and transparency as opposed to their counterparts through delegation of powers to their juniors, a tactic that enhances learning growth. Recent definition of an instructional and pedagogical leader by Pont, Nusche and Moorman (2008) has shifted to include teaching and learning. Some of the scholars have further defined this kind of leadership as ‘learning leadership’. The community in such a learning environment uphold team work as the guiding principal. This entails constant meetings by staff members to discuss, reflect an d modify the learning process together as a team. To further avoid any future conflict that may arise, the members are armed with a problem-solving model to come up with a solution. The community creates a learning culture that leads to student’s success. Administrative leaders on the other hand are more attentive to the general running of the school as regards its finances, school projects and other factors affecting the general management of the school. They isolate themselves from the learning and teaching process leaving it entirely to the juniors to device their own curriculum. This leads to teacher’s laxity which in turn leads to a decline in students’ performances (Anderson and Cawsey 2008). Striking a Balance between the Administrative Role and the Pedagogical/Instructional Role For school leaders to be classified as effective leaders, they need to get deeply involved in the learning and teaching process while at the same time managing their administrati ve role. While this seems to be a challenging task, it is possible through application of various workable solutions. While teaching and learning has been termed as the core business in any learning institution, the school’s management needs to be kept running to ensure success in the said core business. Failure to effectively manage one can render the other one futile. Several scholars have proposed some workable models that can help strike a balance between these competing roles hence reclaiming the lost pedagogical and instructional roles of school leaders. This balancing model can be analysed through five strategic dimensions that play a big role in impacting quality knowledge to students. One of the dimensions is through promotion and active participation in teacher learning development. Crowther, Ferguson and Hann (2008) argue that a school leader needs to be actively involved in all activities pertaining to professional and developmental learning. This has proved to ha ve great impact on the student’s performance outcome. The school leader can be involved through formal or informal contexts. Formal context entails organising and participating in staff meetings and formal professional sessions. The informal context requires the school leader to not only initiate team building sessions that bring together all the members of the staff but to actively participate in them too. Team building session helps the members to identify problems that hinder the learning process and to come up with solutions to these problems through rigorous discussions. Scholars have suggested that such leaders who take this initiative begin to develop a focus in the learning and teaching process. They further get to learn their staff and how they operate. This helps the leaders to know the problems that the staff members are likely to face hence helping them with adequate support ranging from teaching resources to coming up with a valid timetable. Lastly, they learn to appreciate all the stages and time-line involved in the transformation process. The dimension not only involves itself in the learning process but also the administration role. The leader learns to involve the members of the staff in matters that affect the general running of the school hence helping to strike a balance between the two competing roles. The other dimension is through planning, evaluation and implementation of teaching curriculum. The school leaders need to be directly involved in the teaching process through regular attendance in classrooms. Recent study has indicated that giving a feedback to the teachers regarding their teaching tactics in class has played a key role in positive student outcomes (Mullen 2007). Such leaders play a vital role in coordinating an effective school curriculum to be used in all the levels. They also work together with staff members to plan, evaluate and implement their teaching curriculum. The curriculum also ensures a monitoring policy that closely follows the progress of student’s performance and evaluating the results in order to enhance future teaching programs. An effective teaching curriculum not only ensures exemplary performance but also help to create a good image of the school’s administration to the society. The image is an indication that the school head has the managerial abilities to run the school’s administration. Another dimension requires the leaders to come up with goals and expectations. This is by establishing an effective and workable vision and mission statement and to own it. The mission and vision statement encompass the goals and expectations set by both teachers and the students. It is therefore important to actively involve them in setting up these learning goals. Though it can be argued that this dimension plays a very minimal role in student outcome, it has significant learning impact to the students and staff by allowing them develop a specific focus. The school l eader is able to give priority to student achievement by ensuring that the goals are met and that the teaching curriculum correlates with the set school objectives. On the other hand, the goals and objectives also oversee the general running of the school by acting as the guiding principles. Strategic resourcing is also another dimension that the leader should actively be involved in. Strategic decisions concerning allocation of resources to aid in the learning and teaching process have an indirect impact in the student performance outcomes. The resources cover the school staffing and provision of teaching materials that facilitate the learning process. What is important is the ability of the leader to secure adequate resources that relates to the pedagogical set goals and objectives. The school leader on the other hand gains an additional skill to allocate resources required in the managerial role as well. The last dimension is to make certain that an orderly and supportive learnin g environment is maintained. School leaders should ensure a safe and caring haven for both its teaching staff and the students. The intervention mode by school heads to ensure such an environment helps to create a balance between the competing roles. Some of the interventions include setting up a standard discipline code, ensuring minimal conflicts that tends to disrupt the learning process and to protect the teaching staff from undue pressure from outside participants such as the parents or the school board. Implications Of The Dimensions The final question that requires to be answered is whether the dimensions play any key role in striking a balance in a leader’s competitive roles so as to ensure quality learning and teaching process. The dimensions seem to create a link between the leaders and other participants involved in the learning process. This creates an implication of team work that helps in solving problems. It further helps to strike a balance by ensuring key eva luation in student performances that effectively embeds positive experiences. The dimensions also include all the key areas in the school environment and serves as a focal point of leadership that ensures flexibility in affecting decisions made by the participants. Conclusion In order for school leaders to strike a balance between being both administrative and instructional/pedagogical leaders, they need first to focus on effective mode of leadership rather than the bureaucratic approach. The school head should then apply the dimensions in order to effectively get involved in the teaching and learning process on one hand and the managerial role on the other. This makes the heads partake the student’s performance as their core business hence meeting the ultimate requirement as an instructional or pedagogical leader. Reference List Anderson, M and Cawsey, C (2008) Learning for leadership: building a school of  Professional practice. Camberwell, Australian Council for Educatio nal Research Press. Crowther, F., Ferguson, M and Hann, L (2008) Developing Teacher Leaders: How  Teacher Leadership Enhances School Success. London, SAGE Publications. Davies, B (2005) The essentials of school leadership. London, Paul Chapman Publishing and Corwin Press. Davies, B and Ellison, L (2001) School leadership for the 21st century. A competency  and knowledge approach. New York, Routledge. Duke, D.L (2010) The Challenges of School District Leadership. New York, Routledge. Grace, R.G (1995) School leadership: beyond education management: an essay in  policy scholarship. Bristol, The Falmer Press. Mullen, C (2007) Curriculum leadership development: a guide for aspiring school  leaders. Sydney, John Wiley Sons Australia Ltd. Pont, B., Nusche, D and Moorman, H (2008) Improving school leadership: Policy and  practice. New Zealand, OECD Publishing. Robinson, V (2007) William Walker Oration: School Leadership and Student Outcomes  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Identifying What Works and Why. [Online] Available at: www.educationcounts.govt.nz/publications/series/2515/13723. This essay on School Leadership was written and submitted by user F1sher to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

sickle cell disease essays

sickle cell disease essays The genetic disorder I was told to research was the Sickle Cell Disease. I will explain what mutation causes this disease, the characteristics of it, and what has developed in the area The Sickle Cell Disease is an inherited disease. The gene for hemogoblin-S (which causes the disease) is the most common inherited blood condition in America; although most people only inherit one copy of the gene for HbS, while the other gene, hemogoblin-A, is normal, and can override HbS, blocking the disease. These people have the HbS trait, but not the disease, therefore leading a normal life. For an offspring to acquire the disease, both parents must have the HbS gene, yet the child only has a 25% chance of having Sickle Cells. You cannot catch the disease, you are born with it and it is There are many complications and harmful effects as the result of the Sickle Cell Disease. The disease causes hemoglobin in the red blood cells, when it does not receive sufficient oxygen, to form into long, sickle shapes with a sticky, chemical surface. When blood cells are this form, they cannot go through the capillaries, blocking off both blood and oxygen. Fortunately only 20% of all red blood cells become Sickle Cells; the sickle cells have a shorter life span; and most blood cells go through the capillaries before becoming sickle-shaped. The most painful effect known from Sickle Cell Disease are episodes of pain called Sickle Cell Crisis, where the body is in need of oxygen, either from physical activities or a sickle blood cell blocking blood passages that lead to organs. The first day is the worst, where devastating pain goes to the arm, leg, and back, along with the shortness of breath. The other symptoms of Sickle Cells include: strokes, increased infections, early gallstones, yellow discoloring of eyes and skin, low blood cell counts ...

International Economic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

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Econometrics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Econometrics - Essay Example Apple still sells its computer directly to the customers using an online store through various outlets in the global domain (Geweke, Horowitz and Pesaran, 2008). At the same time, Apple stores sell its products via other retail outlets such as the mass-market distributors. By comparison, Apple and Gateway are almost equal in their size. They also respond to their business challenges using similar market strategies. The two firms are experiencing various significant difficulties in the present market. The death of Steve Jobs particularly affects Apple’s stock return and causes it to decline in its entire economy and financial performance. This is especially true with the sales of personal computers. The accounting practices of Apple Inc. are strongly harmonious with the international standard and give a declining performance in comparison with the Jobs time. The two companies Apple and Gateway show a revenues decline for the years between 2011 and 2013. Apple declined by 16.7% while Gateway declined by 14.6% from 2012 to 2013. During the fall in revenue for the two companies, Apple managed to reduce its operating expenditure by 4%. In the event, Apple is operating revenue reduced by 43 % (Angrist & Pischke, 2010). Apple also had positive results from its investments as well as in the interest income. On the other hand, Gateway experienced negative results in the same aspects. The collective impacts of the different performances were very poor for Gateway as opposed to Apple. Between the year 2011 and 2013 Apple declined in net income by 54.7%. Apple had a momentous operational return as far as liquidity is concerned. Its quick ratio had doubled. Profitability and Return on Equity increased almost 69 times while its inventory management increased more than ten times faster. These factors were the driving force for the fundamental financial features and differences. The fundamental factor for the negative developments in Apple after the

Analysing the Concept of and Impact of Culture

Analysing the Concept of and Impact of Culture More than a half century ago noted American poet T. S. Eliot eloquently expressed the complexity of the term culture, a term that is used so freely and with so little aforethought today. As Eliot learned, culture is quite difficult to define. He succeeded in describing the term, as Lord Evans (2001) noted, but a definition eluded even someone with Eliots gift for words. But Eliot was not alone in wrestling with defining culture; experts in a variety of disciplines have yet to agree on a consensus definition and some even contest the concept of culture itself. As this essay will demonstrate, controversy surrounding the concept of culture can be attributed, to a large degree, to the failure by those who study the topic to adopt a widely-accepted definition that adequately captures the complexity of the term. After presenting the results of a literature review on various definitions of culture and the topic of culture as a contested concept, the focus of the essay turns to the significance of culture in conflict resolution, demonstrating that culture is a critical factor in successfully resolving conflicts and, further, that a consensus definition for culture that reflects the realities of modern society would facilitate the conflict resolution process. Culture Defined Experts may not be able to agree on a definition for culture, but they apparently experience no difficulty in agreeing that culture is a difficult term to define (Edensor 2002; Hall 1980, cited in Park 2005). Susan Wright (1998) reports the existence of at least 164 definitions for culture. Noted sociologist and anthropologist Clyde Kluckhohn (1949) defined culture eleven different ways in his book Mirror for Man, and he and his colleagues (1952) catalogued more than 160 definitions for culture into six categories – descriptive, historical, normative, psychological, generic, and incomplete. Raymond Williams writes that, in the term culture, history has bestowed â€Å"one of the two or three most complicated words in the English language†, adding that culture can be used to refer to a wide range of phenomena and that the concept of culture has produced major political and philosophical disagreement (Williams 1983, cited in Chay 1990). Kluckhohn (1954) developed one of the most often cited definitions for culture in writing that it â€Å"consists in patterned ways of thinking, feeling and reacting, acquired and transmitted mainly by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts†. Culture has also been defined as â€Å"that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society† (Tylor 1871, cited in Kluckhohn 1952); â€Å"the human-made part of the environment† (Herskovits 1955, cited in Earley and Randal 1997); â€Å"shared meaning systems† (Shweder and LeVine 1984, cited in Earley and Randal 1997); â€Å"the sum total and organization of the social heritages which have acquired a social meaning because of racial temperament and of the historical life of the group† (Park and Burgess 1921, cited in Kluckhohn 1952); â€Å"th e mode of life followed by the community or the tribe [including] all standardized social procedures† (Wissler 1929, cited in Kluckhohn 1952); â€Å"the sum of mens adjustments to their life-conditions†¦attained only through the combined action of variation, selection, and transmission† (Sumner and Keller 1927, cited in Kluckhohn 1952); and â€Å"a product of human association† (Groves 1928, cited in Kluckhohn 1952). In the aggregate, the various definitions just presented express the theme of shared meanings acquired then passed from generation to generation. They also describe culture at group and societal levels. Other experts describe the term from the perspective of the individual or otherwise provide for differences in cultural attributes within a group or society. Hofstede (1980, cited in Earley and Randel 1997) defines culture as â€Å"a set of mental programs that control an individuals responses in a given context†. Park (2005) describes culture as a â€Å"marker for difference† in society. And Rohner (1984, cited in Earley and Randel 1997) defines the term as â€Å"the totality of equivalent and complementary learned meanings maintained by a human population, or by identifiable segments of a population, and transmitted from one generation to the next†. The phrase â€Å"equivalent and complementary learned meanings† is critical to an understanding of Rohners definition, according to Earley and Randel, because it provides for individual variances in interpretations of â€Å"learned meanings† within a culture. Although these definitions represent only a small portion of those revealed from a review of the literature, they provide some insight into the range of thought on the topic of culture, especially perspectives on assessing culture at various levels – societal, group, and individual. As will be suggested, the difficulty experts have experienced in defining culture helps to explain why culture is a contested concept and why a solution to the definitional problem is important to resolving the debate about the role of culture in conflict resolution and, ultimately, to facilitating the conflict resolution process. Culture as a Contested Concept Fantasia and Hirsch (1995, cited in Ellis and Thompson, 1997) write, with a hint of sarcasm, that cultural theorists can take pride in their creation of a â€Å"contested terrain† in the study of culture. The literature review indicated that most experts who contest the concept of culture base their disputes on the belief that, in the modern world, there is no all-embracing culture in which everyone in a given society blindly holds precisely the same shared meanings, which is suggested by most traditional definitions of culture. The concept of culture has long been contested (Cooper and Denner 1998; Mathews 2000). Bhabha (1993) writes that, as people have increasingly migrated to other lands in modern times, they have only taken part of their total culture with them. The culture of these migrants becomes a mixture of the cultures from their native societies and those found in the society in which they entered. Heath (1997) writes that experts no longer consider culture to be a viable concept â€Å"in a world of volatile, situated, and overlapping social identities†, contending that various disciplines have taken issue with culture as a concept for various reasons. She writes that educators protest the concept on the basis of â€Å"its transmission of connotations of objectivity, discreteness, essentialism, and ahistoricism†; sociologists challenge the concept on the grounds of â€Å"production, mass consumerism, and popular entertainment†; and experts from the human sciences contest the â€Å"totalizing universalizing perspectives† of culture, replacing these â€Å"arbitrary constructions† with â€Å"permeable membranes† that are not â€Å"predictable or deterministic†. Heath (1997) also points to the â€Å"fuzzy boundaries† of culture, arguing that specific cultures are hard to isolate and claiming that variations are becoming apparent within groups that have been traditionally viewed as possessing unique cultures. Edensor (2002) writes that popular culture is having a major cross-cultural effect on traditional cultures. Childs and Storry (1999) claim that cultures are changing so quickly that â€Å"a snapshot of current cultural practices is inevitably going to be blurred†. Mathews (2000), in noting that even anthropologists are increasingly avoiding the term culture, poses the question as to whether â€Å"in todays world of global flows and interactions† cultural â€Å"labels† are appropriate and claims tha t individuals personally select which elements of a given culture to apply in their behavioural decisions. Brightman (1995, cited in Mathews 2000) notes that some experts are enclosing culture in quotation marks to indicate their â€Å"ambivalence, self-consciousness or censure† about the term. In closing, perhaps Earley and Randel (1997) offer the one of the more revealing insights into the controversy over the term culture: â€Å"We suggest that while the romance of culture as a grand concept capturing the complexity of society and life is tempting, this conceptualization is both limiting and misleading†. The Significance of Culture in Conflict Resolution Conflict resolution and culture are intrinsically intertwined. Rubin and colleagues (1994, cited in Bjà ¶rkqvist and Fry 1997) define conflict as â€Å"perceived divergence of interest, or a belief that parties current aspirations cannot be achieved simultaneously†. Hopmann (1998) contends that, in a complex world, conflict is unavoidable. Conflict is an inevitable consequence of the interdependence inherent in human interaction (Bjà ¶rkqvist and Fry 1997). Processes used to resolve conflicts must be considered within a larger cultural context (Just 1991). Conflicts are cultural events in every sense of the word, according to Lederach (1991). Bjà ¶rkqvist and Fry (1997) write that â€Å"conflict resolution is a cultural phenomenon†. Avruch (1991) refers to conflicts and conflict resolution approaches as â€Å"cultural events†. Various studies have confirmed that conflict resolution processes are culture-specific (Avruch and Black 1991; Avurch, Black and Scimec ca 1991, cited in Bjà ¶rkqvist and Fry 1997). Ross (1993, cited in Bjà ¶rkqvist and Fry 1997) originated the term culture of conflict to describe the norms and institutions that a society applies in conflicts. Beliefs, attitudes, and patterns of behaviours about conflict are internalised by people in their cultural settings and, in turn, strengthened by cultural norms and institutions. And, because conflict is a cultural phenomenon, the methods used to perceive and respond to conflict are typically transparent to those involved because these methods are based on assumptions that they do not question. (Bjà ¶rkqvist and Fry 1997) Bjà ¶rkqvist and Fry (1997) urge caution in applying conflict resolution approaches across cultural lines. For instance, they recommend that generic manuals prescribing conflict resolution procedures to be used in all cultural settings should be avoided (Avruch 1991). People involved in conflict resolution should be flexible and sensitive to cultural differences, according to Lederach (1991, cited in Bjà ¶rkqvist) and Benvenisti (1986, cited in Avruch 1991). Benvenisti chastises conflict resolvers â€Å"who believe that communal conflicts are like a chessboard where one can think up the best arrangement of chess pieces and move them all at once†. Cultures vary in the mechanisms they use in resolving conflict with some applying formal mechanisms such as court systems and others using informal approaches such as gossip, teasing, and exclusion (Black 1993; Fry 1992, 1994; Hollan 1988; White 1991, cited in Bjà ¶rkqvist and Fry 1997). Versi (2002) suggests that â€Å"if you know where the other person is coming from culturally†, you can develop a more effective approach to resolving conflict. Rubin (1994, cited in Bjà ¶rkqvist and Fry 1997), articulates four generic strategies used in conflict resolution: (1) contending, which involves a high level of concern for ones own results and a low level of concern for the others results; (2) problem solving, which involves high levels of concern for ones own results and those of the other party; (3) yielding, which involves a low level of concern for ones own results and a high level of concern for the others results; and (4) avoiding, which involves low levels of concern for ones own results and those of the other party. Of these, the authors argue that problem solving is the most effective strategy because it permits both contenders to win. Fortunately, the problem solving strategy is effective across a broad spectrum of cultures. In problem solving, the use of a non-partisan third-party facilitator has also been found to be effective across cultures (Black 1993, cited in Bjà ¶rkqvist and Fry 1997). The Culture Definition Dilemma and Its Effects on Optimal Conflict Resolution Outcomes The debate about culture, specifically the controversy surrounding the validity of culture as a concept, is important to the field of conflict resolution because cultural factors are so inexorably linked to conflicts and their effective resolutions. Results of the literature review of definitions for the term culture and the review of literature on culture as a contested concept suggest that definitions describing culture as a group or societal phenomenon without allowing for variance within the group or society may be at the root of the cultural concept validity dispute. As Bhabha (1993), Childs and Storry (1999), Edensor (2002), Heath (1997), and Mathews (2000) proffer, modern societies are increasingly integrating and, as this occurs, their members are mixing their unique cultural attributes with one another thereby blurring the distinctions that once defined individual cultures. But does this mean that the concept of culture is invalid? The answer to that question lies in the definitions of culture that allow for individual variance in cultural attributes. For instance, the definition offered by Rohner (1984, cited in Earley and Randel 1997), who defines the term as â€Å"the totality of equivalent and complementary learned meanings maintained by a human population, or by identifiable segments of a population, and transmitted from one generation to the next†, provides for individual variances in interpretations of â€Å"learned meanings† within a culture. This definition seems offer the flexibility to adequately define culture within the context of modern intermingled societies, thus revalidating the concept of culture. How, then, would a definition for culture that provides for individual variance relate to conflict resolution? Although a definition that considers everyone within a particular culture to share precisely the same cultural attributes would help to make conflict resolution a much more predictable process, such a definition does not reflect the realities of modern societies. However, knowing that members of a culture share â€Å"equivalent and complementary learned meanings†, as proposed by Rohner, permits a certain degree of predictability whilst simultaneously providing needed flexibility to accommodate individual variance. There may even be an additional benefit in this condition for practitioners in conflict resolution. Individual variance may actually serve to weaken strong cultural barriers that have, in the past, obstructed successful conflict resolution. For instance, as cultures integrate more fully, their members typically become more understanding of each others cultur al attributes. This understanding should provide an enhanced common basis for resolving conflicts and may even reduce the incidence of conflicts themselves. Conclusion In the modern global village, as opportunities increase for people and their cultures to interact, the need for effective conflict resolution has never been more critical or more difficult, yet experts in a variety of disciplines are engaged in seemingly endless philosophical arguments about the validity of culture as a concept, diverting their energies from what seem to be more productive endeavours such as developing new techniques for conflict resolution that could lead to a more peaceful world. Adopting a more flexible definition for culture – one that recognises individual variances and the realities of the modern world – would be a first step in achieving this worthy goal. References Avruch, K. (1991) Introduction: Culture and conflict-resolution, in K. Avruch, P. W. Black, and J. A. Scimecca, eds., Conflict Resolution: Cross Cultural Perspectives, Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood. Avruch, K., and Black, P. W. (1991) The culture question and conflict resolution, Peace and Change 16. Cited in Bjà ¶rkqvist and Fry (1997). Avruch, K., Black, P. W., and Scimecca, J. A., (1991) Conflict Resolution: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. Cited in Bjà ¶rkqvist and Fry (1997). Benvenisti, Meron (1986) Conflicts and Contradictions, New York: Villard Books/Random House. Cited in Avruch (1991). Bhabha, Homi K. (1993) Cultures in between, Artforum International 32:1, September 1993. Bjà ¶rkqvist, Kaj, and Fry, Douglas P. (1997) Cultural Variation in Conflict Resolution: Alternatives to Violence, Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Black, D. (1993) The Social Structure of Right and Wrong, San Diego, California: Academic Press. Cited in Bjà ¶rkqvist and Fry (1997). Brightman, R. (1995) Forget culture: Replacement, transcendence, relexification, Cultural Anthropology 10:4. Cited in Mathews (2000). Chay, Jongsuk (1990) Culture and International Relations, New York: Praeger. Childs, Peter, and Storry, Mike (1999) Encyclopedia of Contemporary British Culture, London: Routledge. Cooper, Catherine R., and Denner, Jill (1998) Theories linking culture and psychology: Universal and community-specific processes, Annual Review of Psychology 49. Earley, P. Christopher, and Randel, Amy E. (1997) Culture without borders: An individual-level approach to cross-cultural research in organizational behavior, in Cary L. Cooper and Susan E. Jackson, eds., Creating Tomorrows Organizations: A Handbook for Future Research in Organizational Behavior, Chichester: John Wiley Sons. Edensor, Tim (2002) National Identity, Popular Culture and Everyday Life, Oxford: Berg. Eliot, T. S. (1949) Notes Towards the Definition of Culture, New York: Harcourt Brace and Company, 62. Ellis, Richard J., and Thompson, Michael (1997) Culture Matters: Essays in Honor of Aaron Wildavsky, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. Evans, Lord (2001) The economy of the imagination, New Statesman 130:4544, July 2, 2001. Fantasia, Rick, and Hirsch, Eric L. (1995), Culture and rebellion: the appropriation and transformation of the veil in the Algerian Revolution, in Hank Johnston and Bert Klandermans, eds., Social Movements and Culture, Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press. Cited in Ellis and Thompson (1997). Fry, D. P. (1992) Female aggression among the Zapotec of Oaxaca, Mexico, in K. Bjà ¶rkqvist and P. Niemelà ¤, eds., Of Mice and Women: Aspects of Female Aggression, San Diego, California: Academic Press. Cited in Bjà ¶rkqvist and Fry (1997). Fry, D. P. (1994) Maintaining social tranquillity: Internal and external loci of aggression control, in L. E. Sponsel and T. Gregor, eds., The Anthropology of Peace and Nonviolence, Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner. Cited in Bjà ¶rkqvist and Fry (1997). Groves, E. R. (1928) An Introduction to Sociology, New York. Cited in Kluckhohn (1952). Hall, S. (1980) Cultural studies: Two paradigms, in F. E. N. B. Dirk and S. B. Ortner, eds., A Reader in Contemporary Social Theory, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Cited in Park (2005). Heath, Shirley Brice (1997) Culture: Contested realm in research on children and youth, Personality and Social Psychology Review 1:3. Herskovits, M. J. (1955) Cultural Anthropology, New York: Knopf. Cited in Earley and Randel (1997). Hofstede, G. (1980) Cultures Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values, Newbury Park, California: Sage. Cited in Earley and Randel (1997). Hollan, D. (1988) Staying cool in Toraja: Informal strategies for the management of anger and hostility in a non-violent society, Ethos 16. Cited in Bjà ¶rkqvist and Fry (1997). Hopmann, Terrence (1998) The Negotiation Process and the Resolution of International Conflicts, Columbia, South Carolina: Columbia South Carolina Press. Just, Peter (1991) Conflict resolution and moral community among the Dou Donggo, in Kevin Avruch, Peter W. Black, and Joseph A. Scimecca, eds., Conflict Resolution: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. Kluckhohn, C. (1949) Mirror for Man, New York: Wittlesey House. Kluckhohn, Clyde (1954) Culture and Behavior, New York: Free Press. Kluckhohn, Clyde et al. (1952) Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum. Lederach, John Paul (1991) Of nets, nails, and problems: The folk language of conflict resolution in a Central American settting, in Kevin Avruch, Peter W. Black, and Joseph A. Scimecca, eds., Conflict Resolution: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. Mathews, Gordon (2000) Searching for Home in the Cultural Supermarket, London: Routledge. Park, R. E., and Burgess, E. W. (1921) Introduction to the Science of Sociology, Chicago. Cited in Kluckhohn (1952). Park, Yoosun (2005) Culture as deficit: A critical discourse analysis of the concept of culture in contemporary social work discourse, Journal of Sociology Social Work 32:3. Rohner, R. R. (1984) Toward a conception of culture for cross-cultural psychology, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 15:2. Cited in Earley and Randel (1997). Ross, M. H. (1993) The Management of Conflict, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. Cited in Bjà ¶rkqvist and Fry (1997). Rubin, J. Z., Pruitt, D. G., and Kim, S. H. (1994) Social Conflict: Escalation, Stalemate and Settlement, New York: McGraw-Hill. Cited in Bjà ¶rkqvist and Fry (1997). Shweder, R. A. and LeVine, R. A. (1984) Culture Theory: Essays on Mind, Self, and Emotion, New York: Cambridge University Press. Cited in Earley and Randel (1997). Sumner, W. G., and Keller, A. G. (1927) The Science of Society, New Haven, Connecticut. Cited in Kluckhohn (1952). Tylor, E. B. (1871) Primitive Culture, Boston. Cited in Kluckhohn (1952). Versi, Anver (2002) Coping with culture clash, African Business, May 2002. White, G. M. (1991) Rhetoric, reality, and resolving conflicts: Disentangling in a Solomon Islands society, in K. Avruch, P. W. Black, and J. A. Schimecca, eds., Conflict Resolution: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood. Cited in Bjà ¶rkqvist and Fry (1997). Wissler, C. (1929) An Introduction to Social Anthropology, New York. Cited in Kluckhohn (1952). Williams, Raymond (1983) Keywords, London: Fontana. Cited in Chay (1990). Wright, Susan (1998) The politicization of culture, Anthropology Today 14:1.

Affirmative Action :: essays research papers

AFFIRMATIVE ACTION I. â€Å"We didn’t land on Plymouth Rock, my brothers and sisters – Plymouth Rock landed on us!† Malcolm X’s observation is brought out by the facts of American History. Snatched from their native land, transported thousands of miles – in a nightmare of disease and death – and sold into slavery, blacks were reduced to the legal status of farm animals. Even after emancipation, blacks were segregated from whites – in some states by law, and by social practice almost everywhere. American apartheid continued for another century.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1954 the Supreme Court declared state-compelled segregation in schools unconstitutional, and it followed up that decision with others that struck down many forms of official segregation. Still, discrimination survived, and in most southern states blacks were either discouraged or prohibited from exercising their right to vote. Not until the 1960’s was compulsory segregation finally and effectively challenged. Between 1964 and 1968 Congress passed the most sweeping civil rights legislation since the end of the Civil War. It banned discrimination in employment, public accommodations (hotels, motels, restaurants, etc.), and housing; it also guaranteed voting rights for blacks in areas suspected of disenfranchising blacks. Today, several agencies in the federal government exercise sweeping powers to enforce these civil rights measures.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  But is that enough? Equality of condition between blacks and whites seems as elusive as ever. The black unemployment rate is double that of whites, and the percentage of black families living in poverty is nearly four times that of whites. Only a small percentage of blacks ever make it into medical school or law schools.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Advocates of affirmative action have focused upon these differences to support their argument that it is no longer enough just to stop discrimination. Liberal Democrats feel that the damage done by three centuries of racism now has to be remedied, they argue, and effective remediation requires a policy of â€Å"affirmative action.† At the heart of affirmative action is the use of â€Å"numerical goals.† Opponents call them â€Å"racial quotas.† Whatever the name, what they imply is the setting aside of a certain number of jobs or positions for blacks or other historically oppressed groups. Conservative Republicans charge that affirmative action really amounts to reverse discrimination, that it penalizes innocent people simply because they are white, that it often results in unqualified appointments, and that it ends up harming instead of helping blacks.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The issue of preferences to address historical patterns of racial, ethnic, and gender discrimination has received a great deal of attention nationally.